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director of International Programs

Толкование Перевод

1 director of International Programs

Военный термин: начальник управления международных программ (ВВС)

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > director of International Programs
2 director of International Programs

начальник управления международных программ ( ВВС)

English-Russian military dictionary > director of International Programs
3 director

начальник (управления, службы, отдела) ; руководитель; директор; ( центральный) прибор управления огнем; прибор управления артиллерийским зенитным огнем, ПУАЗО; целеуказатель; оператор наведения; пункт [самолет, корабль] наведения; ретранслятор; буссоль

Assistant director, Review and Analysis — помощник начальника управления по проверке и анализу (контрактов) (МО)

Deputy CIA director, Essential Elements of Information — заместитель директора ЦРУ по постановке основных задач сбора разведывательной информации

Deputy director of Defense Research and Engineering for Administration, Evaluation and Management — заместитель начальника управления НИОКР МО по административным вопросам, вопросам оценки и управления

Deputy director, Contract Administration Services — заместитель начальника службы по контролю за исполнением контрактов (МО)

Deputy director, Strategic and Naval Warfare Systems — заместитель начальника управления по стратегическим и морским системам оружия (МО)

Deputy director, Tactical Air and Land Warfare Systems — заместитель начальника управления по тактическим авиационным и наземным системам оружия (МО)

Deputy director, Test Facilities and Resources — заместитель начальника управления по испытательному оборудованию и ресурсам (МО)

director EW and C3 Countermeasures — начальник управления РЭБ и мер противодействия системам руководства, управления и связи (МО)

director for C3 Policy — начальник управления разработки программ руководства, управления и связи (МО)

director for Operations, Joint Staff — начальник оперативного управления объединенного штаба (КНШ)

director for Plans and Policy, Joint Staff — начальник управления планирования и строительства ВС объединенного штаба;

director of Administrative Services, Joint Staff — начальник административного управления объединенного штаба

director of C2 and Telecommunications — начальник управления систем оперативного управления и связи

director of Civilian Marksmanship, National Board for the Promotion of Rifle Practice — начальник управления стрелковой подготовки гражданского персонала Национального комитета содействия развитию стрелкового спорта (СВ)

director of Manning (Army) — Бр. начальник управления комплектования (СВ)

director of Research, Development, Test and Evaluation — начальник управления НИОКР, испытаний и оценок

director, Acquisition and Support Planning — начальник управления закупок (военной техники) и планирования МТО (МО)

director, Administrative Support Group — начальник группы административного обеспечения (СВ)

director, Admiralty Marine Technology Establishment — Бр. начальник управления разработки боевой техники МП

director, Admiralty Surface Weapons Establishment — Бр. начальник управления разработки систем надводного оружия ВМС

director, African Region — начальник управления стран Африки (МО)

director, Air National Guard — директор штаба НГ ВВС

director, Air Vehicles Technology — начальник управления разработки авиационных транспортных систем (МО)

director, Air Warfare — начальник управления авиационных систем оружия (МО)

director, Army Air Corps — Бр. начальник управления армейской авиации СВ

director, Army Aviation — начальник управления армейской авиации

director, Army Council of Review Boards — председатель совета СВ по контролю за деятельностью апелляционных комиссий

director, Army Medical Services — Бр. начальник медицинской службы СВ

director, Army National Guard — директор штаба НГ СВ

director, Army Programs — начальник управления разработки программ СВ

director, C3 Resources — начальник управления разработки систем руководства, управления и связи (МО)

director, Chemical Defence Establishment — Бр. директор НИЦ средств химической защиты

director, Civil Affairs — начальник управления по связям с гражданской администрацией и населением

director, Civilian Employees Security Program — начальник службы контрразведывательной проверки гражданского персонала (СВ)

director, Combat Support — начальник управления боевого обеспечения (МО)

director, Communications Systems — начальник управления систем связи (МО)

director, Contracts and Systems Acquisition — начальник управления заключения контрактов и закупок систем оружия и военной техники (МО)

director, Coordination and Analysis — начальник управления координации и анализа

director, Counterintelligence and Investigative Programs — начальник управления программ контрразведки и специальных расследований (МО)

director, Cruise Missile Systems — начальник управления систем КР (МО)

director, Defence Operational Analysis Establishment — Бр. начальник военнонаучного управления МО

director, Defense Research and Engineering — начальник управления НИОКР МО

director, Defense Sciences — начальник научно-исследовательского управления МО

director, Defense Supply Service-Washington — начальник службы снабжения зоны Вашингтона в МО

director, Defense Telephone Service-Washington — начальник телефонной службы зоны Вашингтона в МО

director, Defense Test and Evaluation — начальник управления МО по испытанию и оценке (оружия и военной техники)

director, DIA — начальник разведывательного управления МО

director, Directed Energy Programs — начальник управления программ использования направленной энергии (МО)

director, Doctrine, Organization and Training — начальник управления разработки доктрин, вопросов организации и боевой подготовки

director, DOD SALT Task Force — председатель рабочей группы МО по вопросам переговоров в рамках ОС В

director, East Asia and Pacific Region — начальник управления стран Восточной Азии и Тихого океана (МО)

director, Electronics and Physical Sciences — начальник управления по электронике и естественным наукам (МО)

director, Engineering Technology — начальник управления проектно-конструкторских работ (МО)

director, Environmental and Life Sciences — начальник управления экологических и биологических наук (МО)

director, Equipment Applications — начальник управления по изучению применения техники (в войсках)

director, Facilities Engineering — начальник инженерно-строительного управления

director, Far East/Middle East/Southern Hemisphere Affairs — начальник управления стран Дальнего Востока, Среднего Востока и Южного полушария (МО)

director, Federal Bureau of Investigation — директор ФБР

director, Field Maintenance — начальник службы полевого технического обслуживания и ремонта

director, Foreign Military Rights Affairs — начальник управления по делам прав иностранных государств в военной области (МО)

director, General Purpose Forces Policy — начальник управления разработки вопросов строительства сил общего назначения

director, Health Resources — начальник управления ресурсов здравоохранения

director, Information Processing Technique — начальник управления систем обработки информации (МО)

director, Information Security — начальник управления обеспечения секретности информации (МО)

director, Information Systems — начальник управления АИС

director, Installations — начальник управления строительства

director, Intelligence Resources — начальник управления изучения ресурсов разведки (МО)

director, Inter-American Region — начальник управления по межамериканским делам

director, International Economic Affairs — начальник управления по международным экономическим делам (МО)

director, International Military Staff — начальник международного объединенного штаба (НАТО)

director, Joint Staff — начальник секретариата объединенного штаба (КНШ)

director, Joint Tactical Communications (TRI-TAC) Program — начальник отдела работ по программе использования единой тактической системы связи (ТРИ-ТАК)

director, Judge Advocate Division — начальник отдела военно-юридической службы (МП)

director, Land Warfare — начальник управления наземных систем оружия (МО)

director, Legislative Liaison — начальник отдела по связям с законодательными органами (ВВС)

director, Legislative Reference Service — начальник справочной юридической службы (МО)

director, Major Weapon Systems Acquisition — начальник управления закупок основных систем оружия (МО)

director, Marine Corps Reserve — начальник отдела по вопросам резерва МП

director, Materiel Acquisition Policy — начальник управления разработки планов закупок оружия и военной техники (МО)

director, Materiel Requirements — начальник отдела определения потребностей в оружии и военной технике

director, Medical Plans and Resources — начальник управления ресурсов и планов медицинского обеспечения (ВВС)

director, Military Assistance Office — Бр. начальник управления по оказанию военной помощи иностранным государствам (СВ)

director, Military Survey — Бр. начальник топографического управления (СВ)

director, Military Technology — начальник управления военной технологии (МО)

director, Military Vehicles and Engineering Establishment — Бр. начальник управления БМ и инженерной техники

director, National Intelligence Systems — начальник управления национальных систем разведки (МО)

director, NATO/European Affairs — начальник управления по делам НАТО и стран Европы (МО)

director, Naval Laboratories — начальник управления научно-исследовательских лабораторий ВМС

director, Near Eastern and South Asian Region — начальник управления стран Ближнего Востока и Южной Азии (МО)

director, Negotiations Policy — начальник управления разработки планов ведения переговоров (МО)

director, Net Assessment — начальник управления всесторонней оценки программ (МО)

director, NSA — директор АНБ

director, Offensive and Space Systems — начальник управления космических средств и систем наступательного оружия (МО)

director, Office of Congressional Travel/Security Clearances — начальник отдела организации поездок членов Конгресса и оформления допуска к секретным материалам (МО)

director, Office of Dependents Schools — начальник отдела по вопросам воспитания и образования детей военнослужащих (МО)

director, Office of Research and Administration — начальник управления НИР и административного обеспечения (МО)

director, Operations — начальник оперативного управления [отдела]

director, Personnel and Employment Service-Washington — начальник отдела кадров для гражданских служащих зоны Вашингтона (СВ)

director, Personnel Council — председатель совета по делам ЛС (ВВС)

director, Personnel Plans — начальник управления планирования подготовки ЛС (ВВС)

director, Personnel Programs — начальник управления разработки программ использования ЛС (ВВС)

director, Planning and Health Policy Analysis — начальник управления планирования и развития здравоохранения (МО)

director, Planning and Requirements Review — начальник управления планирования и анализа потребностей (МО)

director, Planning — начальник управления планирования (МО)

director, Plans and Programs — начальник управления разработки планов и программ

director, Policy Research — начальник управления политических исследований (МО)

director, Program Control and Administration — начальник управления по административным вопросам и контролю за выполнением программ

director, Program Management — начальник управления по руководству разработкой программ (МО)

director, R&D and Procurement — начальник отдела НИОКР и заготовок

director, Religious Education — руководитель отделения [секции] религиозного образования (СВ)

director, Resource Management Office — начальник отдела управления ресурсами (СВ)

director, Royal Aircraft Establishment — Бр. директор НИЦ авиационной техники

director, Royal Armament R&D Establishment — Бр. директор НИЦ вооружений

director, Royal Armored Corps — Бр. начальник бронетанковых войск

director, Royal Artillery — Бр. начальник артиллерийского управления

director, Royal Signals and Radar Establishments — Бр. директор НИЦ средств связи и РЛ техники

director, SALT/Arms Control Support Group — начальник группы обеспечения переговоров в рамках ОСВ по контролю над вооружениями

director, Security Assistance Plans and Programs — начальник управления разработки планов и программ военной помощи иностранным государствам

director, Security Plans and Programs — начальник управления разработки планов и программ обеспечения безопасности (МО)

director, Space Activities Office — начальник управления космических программ (МО)

director, Space and Building Management Service-Washington — начальник службы эксплуатации объектов зоны Вашингтона (СВ)

director, Space Systems — начальник управления космических систем (ВВС)

director, Special Projects — начальник управления специальных проектов (МО)

director, Special Studies — начальник управления специальных НИР

director, Special Weapons — начальник управления специальных видов оружия

director, Strategic and Theater C2 Systems — начальник управления разработки систем руководства и управления ВС в стратегическом масштабе и на ТВД

director, Strategic Forces Policy — начальник управления разработки вопросов развития стратегических сил

director, Strategic Planning — начальник отдела стратегического планирования

director, Strategic Plans — начальник отдела стратегического планирования

director, Strategic Policy — начальник управления разработки стратегических проблем (МО)

director, Strategic Technology — начальник управления разработки стратегических систем оружия (МО)

director, Studies and Analyses Staff — начальник отдела исследований и анализа (СВ)

director, Surveillance and Warning — начальник управления систем наблюдения и оповещения (МО)

director, Tactical Intelligence Systems — начальник управления тактических систем разведки (МО)

director, Tactical Technology — начальник управления разработки тактических систем оружия (МО)

director, Technology and Arms Transfer Policy — начальник управления разработки основ передачи военной технологии и вооружений

director, Technology Trade — начальник управления по торговым операциям в области технологии

director, Territorial Army and Cadets — Бр. начальник управления территориальной армии и кадетских организаций

director, Theater Nuclear Force Policy — начальник управления разработки программ развития ядерных сил на ТВД

director, Underwater Weapons Projects — Бр. начальник отдела разработки проектов подводного оружия

director, USAF Judiciary — начальник отдела судопроизводства ВВС США

director, Washington Headquarters Services — начальник административноштабной службы зоны Вашингтона

director, Weapons (Production) — Бр. начальник управления по производству систем оружия

director, Women's RAF — Бр. начальник женской вспомогательной службы ВВС

director, Women's Royal Naval Service — Бр. начальник женской вспомогательной службы ВМС

Executive director, Industrial Security — начальник управления обеспечения сохранения военной тайны на промышленных предприятиях (МО)

Executive director, Quality Assurance — начальник управления обеспечения качества (продукции МО)

Executive director, Technical and Logistics Services — начальник управления служб МТО (МО)

Managing director, Royal Ordnance Factories — Бр. начальник управления военных заводов

Principal director Office of the Deputy Under-Secretary, Policy Planning — начальник управления [первый помощник заместителя МО] по планированию военно-политических программ

Staff director, Installation Services and Environmental Protection — начальник управления обслуживания объектов и защиты окружающей среды (МО)

Staff director, Management Review — начальник управления анализа организационных проблем (МО)

Staff director, Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization — начальник управления по связям с мелкими и льготными предприятиями (МО)

Vice director, Management and Operations Defense Intelligence Agency — первый заместитель начальника разведывательного управления МО по вопросам руководства операциями

— AA director

— artillery director

— assistant deputy director

— Assistant director of Ordnance Stores

— assistant director

— Associate director for Financial and Manpower Audits

— Associate director for Intelligence and Communications Audits

— Associate director for Special Program Audits

— CIA director

— Deputy Assistant director of Ordnance Stores

— deputy assistant director

— deputy associate director

— Deputy director for Advanced Technology

— Deputy director for Research

— Deputy director of Defense Research and Engineering for Electronics and Information Systems

— Deputy director of Defense Research and Engineering for Research and Technology

— Deputy director of Defense Research and Engineering for Strategic and Space Systems

— Deputy director of Defense Research and Engineering for Tactical Warfare Programs

— Deputy director of Ordnance Stores

— deputy director

— director for Administrative Support

— director for Audiovisual Management Policy

— director for Community Relations

— director for Counterintelligence and Security Policy

— director for Defense Information

— director for External Affairs

— director for Freedom of Information and Security Review

— director for Industrial Security Clearance Review

— director for Intelligence Policy

— director for Legislative Liaison

— director for Logistics Joint Staff

— director for Management

— director for Public Affairs

— director for Scientific and Technical Intelligence

— director for Tactical Operations

— director of Administration

— director of Administrative Planning

— director of Admission

— director of Armament Development

— director of Army Contracts

— director of Army Education

— director of Army Legal Services

— director of Army Medicine and Consulting Physician to the Army

— director of Army Pathology and Consulting Pathologist

— director of Army Physical Training Corps

— director of Army Postal Services

— director of Army Quartering

— director of Army Recruiting

— director of Army Royal Signals

— director of Army Staff Duties director

— director of Army Surgery and Consulting Surgeon to the Army

— director of Army Technical Information

— director of Army Training

— director of Army Welfare and Education

— director of Budget

— director of Central Intelligence

— director of Civil Law

— director of Civilian Personnel

— director of Combat Development

— director of Computer Resources

— director of Construction

— director of Contracting and Acquisition Policy

— director of Cost and Management Analysis

— director of Defense Program Analysis and Evaluation

— director of Development and Programming

— director of Economic Adjustment

— director of Education

— director of Engineer Stores

— director of Engineering and Housing

— director of Engineering and Services

— director of Equipment and Requirements

— director of Estimates

— director of European Interallied Planning

— director of Evaluation

— director of Foreign Intelligence

— director of Fortifications and Works

— director of Graves Registration

— director of HQ Support

— director of Industrial Operations

— director of Infantry

— director of Instruction

— director of Intelligence

— director of International Logistics

— director of International Programs

— director of Joint Intelligence Bureau

— director of Logistics Plans and Programs

— director of Logistics

— director of Maintenance and Supply

— director of Maintenance

— director of Management and Resources

— director of Management and Support of Intelligence

— director of Manpower and Organization

— director of Manpower Planning

— director of Marine Corps History and Museums

— director of Mechanical Engineering

— director of Medical Policy and Plans

— director of Military Applications

— director of Military Intelligence

— director of Military Operations

— director of Missile Intelligence

— director of Movements

— director of Munitions

— director of Music

— director of NATO Standardization

— director of Naval Administration

— director of Naval Dental Services

— director of Naval Intelligence

— director of Naval Reserve

— director of Naval Ship Production

— director of Naval Warfare

— director of Navy Program Planning

— director of Officers Assignments

— director of Operational Requirements

— director of Operational Training

— director of Operations Air Defence

— director of Operations Air Transport

— director of Operations and Readiness

— director of Operations Division

— director of Ordnance Stores

— director of Organization and Training

— director of Personal Services

— director of Personnel Administration

— director of Personnel and Community Affairs

— director of Personnel and Security

— director of Personnel

— director of Plans

— director of Policy Air Staff

— director of Postings and Careers Kan

— director of Postings

— director of Procurement Policy

— director of Program Analysis and Evaluation

— director of Program Integration

— director of Programs

— director of Public Affairs

— director of Public Relations

— director of Quartering

— director of R&D

— director of Radio Engineering

— director of Regional Activities

— director of Reserve Affairs

— director of Royal Army Dental Corps

— director of Security

— director of Service Intelligence

— director of Service

— director of Ship Design and Engineering

— director of Signals

— director of Space Systems and

— director of Strategic Target Planning

— director of Supply and Maintenance

— director of Surface Weapon Projects

— director of Tactical Investigation

— director of tactics

— director of Technical Training

— director of the Army Staff

— director of Training Plans

— director of Transportation

— director of Weapons and Development

— director of Welfare Services

— director of Works

— duty director

— executive director

— exercise director

— exercise test director

— fighter director

— fire control director

— fiscal director

— food director

— funeral director

— ground director

— gun director

— illuminating director

— intercept director

— medical director

— missile director

— National Armaments director

— optronic AA fire director

— recreation center director

— safety director

— senior air director

— Staff director for Military Personnel

— staff director

— state civil defense director

— study director

— tactical air director

— TV AA fire director

— TV-laser AA fire director

— Vice director

— war game director

— weapons director

English-Russian military dictionary > director
4 начальник управления международных программ

Military: director of International Programs (ВВС)

Универсальный русско-английский словарь > начальник управления международных программ
5 comercial

adj.

1 commercial.

relaciones comerciales trade relations

2 store.

f. & m.

sales rep (vendedor, representante).

m.

commercial, ad, advertisement, advert.

* * *

comercial

► adjetivo

1 (del comercio) commercial

2 (de tiendas) shopping

► nombre masulino o femenino

1 (vendedor) seller; (hombre) salesman; (mujer) saleswoman

\

FRASEOLOGÍA

banco comercial commercial bank

tratado comercial commercial treaty

* * *

adj.

commercial

* * *

1. ADJ

1) (=de tiendas) [área, recinto] shopping antes de s

un centro comercial — a shopping centre

2) (=financiero) [carta, operación] business antes de s ; [balanza, déficit, guerra, embargo] trade antes de s ; [intercambio, estrategia] commercial

el interés comercial de la empresa — the commercial o trading interests of the company

su novela alcanzó un gran éxito comercial — his novel was very successful commercially, his novel achieved great commercial success

han reanudado las relaciones comerciales — they have resumed trading relations
agente 1., local 2., 1)
3) [aviación, avión, piloto] civil

4) [cine, teatro, literatura] commercial

una película muy comercial — a very commercial film

2.

SMF (=vendedor) salesperson

* * *
I
adjetivo

a) <zona/operación/carta> business (before n)

una firma comercial — a company

el desequilibrio comercial entre los dos países — the trade imbalance between the two countries

el déficit comercial — the trade deficit

nuestra división comercial — our sales o marketing department; galería, centro

b) <película/arte> commercial
II
masculino

1) (AmL) commercial, advert (BrE)

2) (CS) (Educ) business school
III
femenino o masculino ( tienda)

Comercial Hernández — Hernandez's Stores

* * *

= commercial, commercially available, entrepreneurial, fee-based, marketing, priceable, for-profit, consumer-like, business-like, business-related, market-orientated [market orientated], profit-making, profit-related, readily available, trade-oriented, profit-orientated, marketable, business, off-the-shelf, commercially operated, market-oriented [market oriented], profit-oriented, out of the box, profit-generating.

Ex. It is these features which have led co-operative members to select these systems rather than those of the commercial software vendor.

Ex. Computerized information-retrieval systems are also very prominent in commercially available online search systems and applications.

Ex. It was noteworthy that nearly all SLIS were maintaining their IT materials as much, if not more, from earnings from entrepreneurial activity than out of institutional allocation.

Ex. The imposition of fee-based services may radically curtail the breadth of resources available to library users where historically information has been offered freely.

Ex. Business International Inc. is another US service covering economic and marketing activities in over seventy countries.

Ex. Neither are the latter group, in the course of their professional activities, likely to feel that the treatment of information as a priceable commodity compromises a principle fundamental to their professional ethic.

Ex. The friction in this industry between private, for-profit services and not-for-profit learned societies or government bodies is deep-seated.

Ex. I tried to say at the very outset of my remarks that there probably has not been sufficient consumer-like and assertive leverage exerted upon our chief suppliers.

Ex. It was generally felt that US libraries are organised on more business-like lines than those in the Netherlands.

Ex. Twinning of libraries in different countries can bring benefits in terms of joint projects, student exchanges, and other buisness-related affairs.

Ex. In the middle range of authorship there is, then, quite a wide band of writing stretching from the scholarly to the market-orientated = En el nivel medio de autoría existe, pues, a una gran gama de producciones escritas que van desde lo científico a lo comercial.

Ex. Many types of budgets are not really applicable to libraries, since libraries are not primarily profit-making institutions.

Ex. However these distinctions are not always clear cut, the public sector may pursue profit-related goals and the private sector may adopt other goals besides profit (improving work environments, quality of life).

Ex. Librarians generally adopt the common strategy of simply using readily available sources of information.

Ex. Trade-oriented scholarly presses also predict more titles, smaller press runs and higher prices.

Ex. Information producers and sellers are profit-orientated.

Ex. Central to this is the belief that information is a marketable commodity.

Ex. A major concern of the journal will be the business, economic, legal, societal and technological relationships between information technology and information resource management.

Ex. A standard off-the-shelf version costs 450 and fully tailored systems usually fall into the range 1,250 -- 1,450.

Ex. There are a number of microfilming centres in the country including two commercially operated microfilming services.

Ex. The market oriented economy is changing the role of information and business information services.

Ex. The author points out dangers inherent in the fact that on-line data bases are privately owned and profit-oriented.

Ex. Software vendors provide manuals for the ' out of the box' programs they sell.

Ex. Examples of determined efforts to erase the intellectual boundaries between the profit-generating models of business and the intellectual pursuits of the academic community are considered.

----

* actividad comercial = commercial activity.

* anuncio comercial = commercial.

* aplicación comercial = commercial application, business application.

* aplicaciones comerciales = commercial software.

* argumento comercial = business case.

* asequible en establecimiento comercial = over the counter.

* aviación comercial = commercial aviation.

* bajo comercial = commercial premise.

* banco comercial = business bank.

* barrera comercial = trade barrier.

* carta comercial = business letter.

* casa comercial = house.

* caso comercial = business case.

* catálogo comercial de compra por correo = mail order catalogue.

* centro comercial = shopping centre, shopping precinct, mall of shops, plaza.

* comercial 7 papel comercial = commercial paper.

* compañía comercial = business firm.

* correspondencia comercial = business correspondence.

* déficit comercial = trade deficit.

* déficit de la balanza comercial = trade deficit.

* de gran éxito comercial = high selling.

* demanda comercial = market demand, commercial demand.

* de modo comercial = on a commercial basis.

* de un gran éxito comercial = best selling [bestselling/best-selling], top-selling.

* de uso comercial = commercially-owned.

* director comercial = chief commercial officer.

* directorio comercial = trade directory, traders' list, traders' catalogue.

* directorio comercial por calles = street directory.

* distrito comercial = business district.

* diversificación comercial = business diversification.

* edificio comercial = commercial building.

* editor comercial = commercial publisher.

* editorial comercial = publishing firm, publishing press.

* emporio comercial = emporium [emporia, -pl.].

* empresa comercial = business firm.

* estafa comercial = business scam.

* estrategia comercial = business plan, market strategy.

* éxito comercial = commercial success, financial success.

* firma comercial = commercial firm, firm, commercial enterprise, business firm.

* galería comercial = shopping arcade, walking arcade.

* horario comercial = business hours.

* industria de las exposiciones comerciales = trade show industry.

* inglés "comercial" = pidgin English.

* licencia comercial = trading licence.

* mantener relaciones comerciales = do + business.

* marca comercial = brand name, servicemark, trade name.

* mundo comercial, el = commercial world, the.

* nación comercial = trading nation.

* no comercial = non-profit making, non-commercial [noncommercial].

* novedad comercial = industry update.

* para uso comercial = commercially-owned.

* parque comercial = business estate.

* poco comercial = uncommercial.

* polígono comercial = business estate.

* presentación comercial = technical presentation.

* producto comercial = retail product.

* programa informático comercial = commercial application, commercial software.

* programas comerciales = commercial software.

* propuesta comercial = business proposition.

* proyecto comercial = marketing project.

* razonamiento comercial = business case.

* relaciones comerciales = business dealings.

* rentabilidad comercial = business profitability.

* representante comercial = business traveller.

* riesgo comercial = business risk.

* secreto comercial = competitive information.

* sector comercial, el = profit-oriented sector, the, profit sector, the, commercial sector, the, for-profit sector, the.

* sector no comercial, el = not-for-profit sector, the, non-profit sector, the.

* servicio comercial = commercial service.

* sistema comercial = market system, commercial system.

* situado en la calle comercial = shop-front [shopfront] .

* socio comercial = business associate.

* software comercial = commercial software.

* valor comercial = commercial paper.

* vehículo comercial = commercial vehicle.

* viajante comercial = business traveller.

* visión comercial = business acumen.

* vuelo comercial = commercial flight.

* zona comercial = business district, shopping area, shopping district.

* * *
I
adjetivo

a) <zona/operación/carta> business (before n)

una firma comercial — a company

el desequilibrio comercial entre los dos países — the trade imbalance between the two countries

el déficit comercial — the trade deficit

nuestra división comercial — our sales o marketing department; galería, centro

b) <película/arte> commercial
II
masculino

1) (AmL) commercial, advert (BrE)

2) (CS) (Educ) business school
III
femenino o masculino ( tienda)

Comercial Hernández — Hernandez's Stores

* * *

= commercial, commercially available, entrepreneurial, fee-based, marketing, priceable, for-profit, consumer-like, business-like, business-related, market-orientated [market orientated], profit-making, profit-related, readily available, trade-oriented, profit-orientated, marketable, business, off-the-shelf, commercially operated, market-oriented [market oriented], profit-oriented, out of the box, profit-generating.

Ex: It is these features which have led co-operative members to select these systems rather than those of the commercial software vendor.

Ex: Computerized information-retrieval systems are also very prominent in commercially available online search systems and applications.

Ex: It was noteworthy that nearly all SLIS were maintaining their IT materials as much, if not more, from earnings from entrepreneurial activity than out of institutional allocation.

Ex: The imposition of fee-based services may radically curtail the breadth of resources available to library users where historically information has been offered freely.

Ex: Business International Inc. is another US service covering economic and marketing activities in over seventy countries.

Ex: Neither are the latter group, in the course of their professional activities, likely to feel that the treatment of information as a priceable commodity compromises a principle fundamental to their professional ethic.

Ex: The friction in this industry between private, for-profit services and not-for-profit learned societies or government bodies is deep-seated.

Ex: I tried to say at the very outset of my remarks that there probably has not been sufficient consumer-like and assertive leverage exerted upon our chief suppliers.

Ex: It was generally felt that US libraries are organised on more business-like lines than those in the Netherlands.

Ex: Twinning of libraries in different countries can bring benefits in terms of joint projects, student exchanges, and other buisness-related affairs.

Ex: In the middle range of authorship there is, then, quite a wide band of writing stretching from the scholarly to the market-orientated = En el nivel medio de autoría existe, pues, a una gran gama de producciones escritas que van desde lo científico a lo comercial.

Ex: Many types of budgets are not really applicable to libraries, since libraries are not primarily profit-making institutions.

Ex: However these distinctions are not always clear cut, the public sector may pursue profit-related goals and the private sector may adopt other goals besides profit (improving work environments, quality of life).

Ex: Librarians generally adopt the common strategy of simply using readily available sources of information.

Ex: Trade-oriented scholarly presses also predict more titles, smaller press runs and higher prices.

Ex: Information producers and sellers are profit-orientated.

Ex: Central to this is the belief that information is a marketable commodity.

Ex: A major concern of the journal will be the business, economic, legal, societal and technological relationships between information technology and information resource management.

Ex: A standard off-the-shelf version costs 450 and fully tailored systems usually fall into the range 1,250 -- 1,450.

Ex: There are a number of microfilming centres in the country including two commercially operated microfilming services.

Ex: The market oriented economy is changing the role of information and business information services.

Ex: The author points out dangers inherent in the fact that on-line data bases are privately owned and profit-oriented.

Ex: Software vendors provide manuals for the ' out of the box' programs they sell.

Ex: Examples of determined efforts to erase the intellectual boundaries between the profit-generating models of business and the intellectual pursuits of the academic community are considered.

* actividad comercial = commercial activity.

* anuncio comercial = commercial.

* aplicación comercial = commercial application, business application.

* aplicaciones comerciales = commercial software.

* argumento comercial = business case.

* asequible en establecimiento comercial = over the counter.

* aviación comercial = commercial aviation.

* bajo comercial = commercial premise.

* banco comercial = business bank.

* barrera comercial = trade barrier.

* carta comercial = business letter.

* casa comercial = house.

* caso comercial = business case.

* catálogo comercial de compra por correo = mail order catalogue.

* centro comercial = shopping centre, shopping precinct, mall of shops, plaza.

* comercial 7 papel comercial = commercial paper.

* compañía comercial = business firm.

* correspondencia comercial = business correspondence.

* déficit comercial = trade deficit.

* déficit de la balanza comercial = trade deficit.

* de gran éxito comercial = high selling.

* demanda comercial = market demand, commercial demand.

* de modo comercial = on a commercial basis.

* de un gran éxito comercial = best selling [bestselling/best-selling], top-selling.

* de uso comercial = commercially-owned.

* director comercial = chief commercial officer.

* directorio comercial = trade directory, traders' list, traders' catalogue.

* directorio comercial por calles = street directory.

* distrito comercial = business district.

* diversificación comercial = business diversification.

* edificio comercial = commercial building.

* editor comercial = commercial publisher.

* editorial comercial = publishing firm, publishing press.

* emporio comercial = emporium [emporia, -pl.].

* empresa comercial = business firm.

* estafa comercial = business scam.

* estrategia comercial = business plan, market strategy.

* éxito comercial = commercial success, financial success.

* firma comercial = commercial firm, firm, commercial enterprise, business firm.

* galería comercial = shopping arcade, walking arcade.

* horario comercial = business hours.

* industria de las exposiciones comerciales = trade show industry.

* inglés "comercial" = pidgin English.

* licencia comercial = trading licence.

* mantener relaciones comerciales = do + business.

* marca comercial = brand name, servicemark, trade name.

* mundo comercial, el = commercial world, the.

* nación comercial = trading nation.

* no comercial = non-profit making, non-commercial [noncommercial].

* novedad comercial = industry update.

* para uso comercial = commercially-owned.

* parque comercial = business estate.

* poco comercial = uncommercial.

* polígono comercial = business estate.

* presentación comercial = technical presentation.

* producto comercial = retail product.

* programa informático comercial = commercial application, commercial software.

* programas comerciales = commercial software.

* propuesta comercial = business proposition.

* proyecto comercial = marketing project.

* razonamiento comercial = business case.

* relaciones comerciales = business dealings.

* rentabilidad comercial = business profitability.

* representante comercial = business traveller.

* riesgo comercial = business risk.

* secreto comercial = competitive information.

* sector comercial, el = profit-oriented sector, the, profit sector, the, commercial sector, the, for-profit sector, the.

* sector no comercial, el = not-for-profit sector, the, non-profit sector, the.

* servicio comercial = commercial service.

* sistema comercial = market system, commercial system.

* situado en la calle comercial = shop-front [shopfront].

* socio comercial = business associate.

* software comercial = commercial software.

* valor comercial = commercial paper.

* vehículo comercial = commercial vehicle.

* viajante comercial = business traveller.

* visión comercial = business acumen.

* vuelo comercial = commercial flight.

* zona comercial = business district, shopping area, shopping district.

* * *

comercial¹

adjective

1 ‹distrito/operación› business ( before n)

una importante firma comercial an important company

el desequilibrio comercial entre los dos países the trade imbalance between the two countries

un emporio comercial fenicio a Phoenician trading post

algunos critican su agresividad comercial some people criticize their aggressive approach to business

el déficit comercial the trade deficit

una carta comercial a business letter

nuevas iniciativas comerciales new business initiatives

nuestra división comercial our sales o marketing department

el derribo de un avión comercial the shooting down of a civil aircraft

ver tb agente comercial (↑ agente), centro comercial (↑ centro), galería, etc

2 ‹película/arte› commercial

comercial²

masculine

( AmL)

commercial, advert ( BrE)

comercial³

feminine

or

masculine

A

(tienda): [ S ] Comercial Hernández Hernandez's Stores

B (CS) ( Educ) business school

* * *

comercial adjetivo
a) ‹zona/operación/carta› business ( before n);

◊ una firma comercial a company;

el déficit comercial the trade deficit;
See Also→ galería, centro
b) ‹película/arte› commercial

■ sustantivo masculino
a) ( anuncio) commercial, advert (BrE)

b) (CS) (Educ) business school

comercial adjetivo commercial
' comercial' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
balanza
- centro
- depresión
- erotizar
- galería
- propaganda
- recibo
- Sres.
- feria
- gerente
- pasaje
- relación
- señalización
- señalizar
- zona
English:
accessible
- arcade
- brand name
- business
- commercial
- commercialize
- delay
- delegation
- head-hunt
- mall
- merchant bank
- moneymaker
- profit margin
- rep
- run across
- sales brochure
- sales promotion
- sales rep
- selling point
- shopping centre
- trade agreement
- trade deficit
- trade embargo
- trade gap
- trade route
- tradename
- trading partner
- trading results
- unbusinesslike
- break
- cash
- fair
- for
- mix
- opening
- plaza
- precinct
- representative
- shopping
- trade
- trading

* * *

comercial

♦ adj

1. [de empresas] commercial;
[embargo, déficit, disputa] trade;
relaciones comerciales trade relations;

aviación comercial civil aviation;

política comercial trade policy;

gestión comercial business management

2. [que se vende bien] commercial;

una película muy comercial a very commercial film

♦ nmf
[vendedor, representante] sales rep
♦ nm
Am commercial, Br advert
* * *

comercial

I adj commercial; de negocios business atr ;

el déficit comercial the trade deficit

II m/f representative

III m L.Am. ( anuncio) commercial

* * *

comercial adj & nm

: commercial

♦ comercialmente adv

* * *

comercial¹ adj commercial

comercial² n salesman [pl. salesmen] / saleswoman [pl. saleswomen]

Spanish-English dictionary > comercial
6 office

управление; департамент; комитет; отдел; бюро; секретариат, канцелярия; разг. кабина экипажа

Joint Service Cruise Missile Program [Project] office — объединенное управление разработки КР (для ВВС и ВМС)

office of Information, Navy — информационное управление ВМС

office of Research, Development and Evaluation — управление НИОКР ВМС

office of the Chief, Army Reserve — управление резерва СВ

office of the Comptroller, Navy — управление главного финансового инспектора ВМС

office of the Deputy COFS for Research, Development and Acquisition — управление заместителя НШ по НИОКР и закупкам (СВ)

office, Aerospace Research — управление воздушно-космических исследований

office, Analysis and Review — управление анализа и контроля потребностей

office, Armor Force Management and Standardization — управление по вопросам администрации и стандартизации бронетанковых войск

office, Assistant COFS for Force Development — управление ПНШ по строительству ВС

office, Assistant COFS for Intelligence — управление ПНШ по разведке

office, Assistant COFS — управление [отдел] ПНШ

office, Assistant Secretary of Defense — аппарат [секретариат] ПМО

office, Chief of Chaplains — управление начальника службы военных священников (СВ)

office, Chief of Civil Affairs — управление по связям с гражданской администрацией и населением

office, Chief of Engineers — управление начальника инженерных войск

office, Chief of Finance (and Accounting) — управление начальника финансовой службы (СВ)

office, Chief of Legislative Liaison — отдел связи с законодательными органами

office, Chief of Ordnance — управление начальника артиллерийско-технической службы (СВ)

office, Chief of R&D — управление НИОКР (СВ)

office, Chief of Transportation — управление [отдел] начальника транспортной службы

office, Chief, Chemical Corps — управление начальника химической службы

office, COFS for Operations — оперативное управление НШ

office, COFS, Army — аппарат НШ СВ

office, Consolidated Personnel — управление гражданских рабочих и служащих

office, Coordinator of Army Studies — управление координатора разработок СВ

office, Defense Transportation — управление военно-транспортной службы

office, Deputy Chief of Naval Operations, Air Warfare — управление заместителя НШ ВМС по боевому применению авиации

office, Deputy COFS for Aviation — отдел заместителя НШ по авиации (МП)

office, Deputy COFS for Installations and Logistics — управление заместителя НШ по расквартированию и тыловому обеспечению

office, Deputy COFS for Manpower — управление заместителя НШ по людским ресурсам

office, Deputy COFS for Operations and Training — управление заместителя НШ по оперативной и боевой подготовке

office, Deputy COFS for Plans and Logistics — управление заместителя НШ по планированию тылового обеспечения

office, Development and Engineering — отдел технических разработок (ЦРУ)

office, Development and Weapon Systems Analysis — управление разработки и анализа систем вооружения

office, Director of Development Planning — управление планирования строительства (ВВС)

office, Director of Foreign Intelligence — управление начальника внешней разведки

office, Distribution Services — отдел распределения и рассылки картографических изданий (МО)

office, Economic Research — отдел экономических исследований (ЦРУ)

office, Emergency Transportation — управление чрезвычайных перевозок

office, Employment Policy and Grievance Review — отдел по вопросам занятости и рассмотрению жалоб (СВ)

office, Federal Procurement Policy — управление разработки федеральной политики в области закупок

office, Force Planning and Analysis — управление планирования и анализа строительства ВС

office, General Council — управление генерального юрисконсульта

office, Geographic and Cartographic Research — отдел географических и картографических исследований (ЦРУ)

office, Imagery Analysis — отдел анализа видовой информации (ЦРУ)

office, Information and Legal Affairs — управление информации и права (МО)

office, Information for. the Armed Forces — управление информации ВС

office, JCS — аппарат КНШ

office, Judge Advocate General — управление начальника военно-юридической службы

office, Management and Budget — административно-бюджетное управление

office, Military Assistance — управление по оказанию военной помощи

office, Personnel Manager — отдел кадров (СВ)

office, Services and Information Agency — отдел управления информационного обеспечения

office, Special Assistant for Logistical Support of Army Aircraft — отдел специального помощника по вопросам МТО армейской авиации

office, Special Assistant for Logistical Support of Tactical Communications — отдел специального помощника по вопросам МТО тактических систем связи

office, the Inspector General — управление генерального инспектора

office, the Legislative Affairs — управление военного законодательства

office, Under Secretary of Navy — аппарат заместителя министра ВМС

office, Under Secretary of the Air Force — аппарат заместителя министра ВВС

Personnel, Plans and Training office — отдел по вопросам ЛС, планирования и боевой подготовки

Strategic Objectives [Targets] Planning office — управление планирования стратегических задач (КНШ)

Strategic Submarine C2 office — отдел оперативного управления ПЛ стратегических сил

Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Night Observation System office — управление разработки систем наблюдения, засечки целей и ПНВ

— Adjutant General's office

— Administrative office

— admission office

— Air Attache Affairs office

— Air Force office of Security Police

— Air Force office of Special Investigations

— Air Force Post office

— Air Force Special Security office

— Air Land Programs office

— air reconnaissance liaison office

— Airlift Coordinating office

— ammunition office

— Antimissile Missile and Space Defense Projects office

— approving office

— Armed Forces Graves Registration office

— Army Air Defense Operations office

— Army Careers and Information office

— Army Electronics and Special Weapons office

— Army Force Modernization Coordination office

— Army Industry Material Information Liaison office

— Army Post office

— Army Procurement Research office

— Army R&D Information Systems office

— Army Research office

— Army Staff Military Assistance office

— Army Staff Operations office

— Army Staff Reserves office

— Army Staff Security office

— Army Staff TOE office

— Army Staff Topography office

— Army Staff Training office

— assault signal office

— beach signal office

— billeting office

— BM Construction office

— BM Defense Program office

— BM office

— branch field post office

— branch office

— British Forces Post office

— careers office

— Central Purchasing office

— Chief QM's office

— cipher office

— circulation control office

— Civilian Personnel office

— code office

— command issuing office

— Commercial Communications Policy office

— community post office

— company office

— Comptroller General's office

— counterfire duty office

— Crime and Intelligence office

— Defense Attache office

— Defense Commercial Communications office

— Defense Communications Engineering office

— Defense Communications Field office

— Defense foreign disclosure coordinating office

— Defense Materiel Specifications and Standards office

— Defense Property Disposal office

— Defense Research office

— Defense Staff office

— District Transportation office

— division ammunition office

— division army post office

— divisional office

— Equal Employment Opportunity office

— Executive office for the National Military Representative

— Executive office of the Secretary

— executive office

— Facilities Engineering office

— Facilities Supply office

— Field Buying office

— field personnel office

— field post office

— Fleet Post office

— forces post office

— Foreign Liaison office

— General Accounting office

— general military training office

— General Post office

— general reference office

— Graves Registration office

— High Energy Laser Systems office

— Highway Regulating office

— Housing office

— housing referral office

— Human Resources Research office

— Information office

— Information Tour and Travel office

— Inspection office

— intelligence office

— Intelligence-Producing office

— Joint Allied Military Petroleum office

— Joint Area Petroleum office

— law-enforcement office

— liaison office

— local recruiting office

— Logistical Assistance office

— Maintenance Interservice Support Management office

— Management Information Systems office

— medical regulating office

— Metropolitan Information office

— Military District Administrative office

— Military Personnel office

— Military Planning office

— military post office

— Military Satellite Communications office

— Munitions Control office

— National Intelligence Tasking office

— National Reconnaissance office

— NATO Airborne Early Warning Projects office

— Naval Aviation Engineering office

— Navy Information office

— Navy office

— Nuclear Cataloguing office

— office Director of Organization and Training

— office for Dependents' Medical Care

— office for the Freedom of Information

— office of Chief of Public Affairs

— office of Chief QM

— office of Chief Signal Officer

— office of Civil Defense

— office of Civil Operations

— office of Civilian Health and Medical Program of the Uniformed Services

— office of Civilian Manpower Management

— office of Communication Systems

— office of Community Services

— office of Defense and Civilian Mobilization

— office of Defense Cooperation

— office of Defense Management and Organization

— office of Defense Manpower

— office of Director of Intelligence

— office of Emergency Planning

— office of Emergency Preparedness

— office of Emergency Service

— office of Guided Missiles

— office of Industrial Personnel Access Authorization Review

— office of Industrial Relations

— office of Industrial Security

— office of Military Government for Berlin Sector

— office of Military Government

— office of Military Instruction

— office of Military Leadership

— office of Naval Administration

— office of Naval Inspector General

— office of Naval Inspectors of Ordnance

— office of Naval Intelligence

— office of Naval Operations

— office of Naval Research

— office of Naval Reserve

— office of Naval Warfare

— office of Naval Weapons

— office of Naval Weather Service

— office of NBC Warfare

— office of Ocean Affairs

— office of origin

— office of Personnel

— office of Planning and Management

— office of Primary Concern

— office of Primary Responsibility

— office of Procurement and Materiel

— office of Procurement and Policy

— office of Program Appraisal

— office of Regional and Political Analysis

— office of Research Analysis

— office of Reserve Components

— office of Safety and Nuclear Surety

— office of Security Police

— office of Security Review

— office of Selective Service Records

— office of SIGINT

— office of Space Systems

— office of Special Investigations

— office of Special Weapons Development

— office of Strategic Information

— office of Strategic Offensive and Defensive Systems

— office of Strategic Plans

— office of Support Services

— office of Systems and Financial Management

— office of Technical Information

— office of Technical Services

— office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense/Public Affairs

— office of the Chief Chemical Officer

— office of the Chief of CW Service

— office of the Chief of Finance

— office of the Chief of Information

— office of the Chief of Military History

— office of the Chief of Naval Operations

— office of the Chief of Special Warfare

— office of the Chief of Support Services

— office of the Chief Signal Officer

— office of the Chief Surgeon

— office of the Commanding General

— office of the Deputy COFS for Logistics

— office of the Deputy COFS for Military Operations

— office of the Deputy COFS for Personnel

— office of the Deputy COFS

— office of the Director of Civilian Marksmanship

— office of the Director of Defense Research and Engineering

— office of the Director of Weapons Systems Analysis

— office of the Director

— office of the Field Directorate and Ammunition Plants

— office of the General Purchasing Agent

— office of the JCS

— office of the Judge Advocate General

— office of the Oceanographer of the Navy

— office of the Provost Marshal General

— office of the QM

— office of the Scientific Adviser

— office of the Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs

— office of the Secretary of Defense

— office of the Secretary of the Air Force

— office of the Secretary of the Army

— office of the Secretary of the Navy

— office of the Secretary to the Staff

— office of the Secretary

— office of the Surgeon General

— office of the Under Secretary of the Army

— office of the US Army Attache

— office of Weapons Intelligence

— office QM General

— operations office

— Physical Education office

— Planning and Administrative office

— Political-Military Affairs office

— Preparedness office

— Program Analysis and Evaluation office

— Program Planning office

— project manager office

— Public Affairs office

— Public Information office

— Public Relations office

— Records office

— recruiting office

— regional office

— replacements allocation office

— Resources Management office

— Retirement Services office

— Royal Marine office

— SAC Project office

— Secretary of the Army office

— Security office

— Soldiers' Record office

— staff office

— Strategic Technology office

— sub-post office

— Summing-Up Evaluation office

— support control office

— Survivable Communications office

— Survivor Assistance office

— System Analysis office

— Systems Program office

— Traffic Control office

— Training Aid Service office

— US Army Commercial Communications office

— War office

— Weapons System Analysis office

English-Russian military dictionary > office
7 History of volleyball

________________________________________

William G. Morgan (1870-1942) inventor of the game of volleyball

________________________________________

William G. Morgan (1870-1942), who was born in the State of New York, has gone down in history as the inventor of the game of volleyball, to which he originally gave the name "Mintonette".

The young Morgan carried out his undergraduate studies at the Springfield College of the YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) where he met James Naismith who, in 1891, had invented basketball. After graduating, Morgan spent his first year at the Auburn (Maine) YMCA after which, during the summer of 1896, he moved to the YMCA at Holyoke (Massachusetts) where he became Director of Physical Education. In this role he had the opportunity to establish, develop, and direct a vast programme of exercises and sports classes for male adults.

His leadership was enthusiastically accepted, and his classes grew in numbers. He came to realise that he needed a certain type of competitive recreational game in order to vary his programme. Basketball, which sport was beginning to develop, seemed to suit young people, but it was necessary to find a less violent and less intense alternative for the older members.

________________________________________

History Of Volleyball

________________________________________

In 1995, the sport of Volleyball was 100 years old!

The sport originated in the United States, and is now just achieving the type of popularity in the U.S. that it has received on a global basis, where it ranks behind only soccer among participation sports.

Today there are more than 46 million Americans who play volleyball. There are 800 million players worldwide who play Volleyball at least once a week.

In 1895, William G. Morgan, an instructor at the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in Holyoke, Mass., decided to blend elements of basketball, baseball, tennis, and handball to create a game for his classes of businessmen which would demand less physical contact than basketball. He created the game of Volleyball (at that time called mintonette). Morgan borrowed the net from tennis, and raised it 6 feet 6 inches above the floor, just above the average man's head.

During a demonstration game, someone remarked to Morgan that the players seemed to be volleying the ball back and forth over the net, and perhaps "volleyball" would be a more descriptive name for the sport.

On July 7, 1896 at Springfield College the first game of "volleyball" was played.

In 1900, a special ball was designed for the sport.

1900 - YMCA spread volleyball to Canada, the Orient, and the Southern Hemisphere.

1905 - YMCA spread volleyball to Cuba

1907 Volleyball was presented at the Playground of America convention as one of the most popular sports

1909 - YMCA spread volleyball to Puerto Rico

1912 - YMCA spread volleyball to Uruguay

1913 - Volleyball competition held in Far Eastern Games

1917 - YMCA spread volleyball to Brazil

In 1916, in the Philippines, an offensive style of passing the ball in a high trajectory to be struck by another player (the set and spike) were introduced. The Filipinos developed the "bomba" or kill, and called the hitter a "bomberino".

1916 - The NCAA was invited by the YMCA to aid in editing the rules and in promoting the sport. Volleyball was added to school and college physical education and intramural programs.

In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points.

1919 American Expeditionary Forces distributed 16,000 volleyballs to it's troops and allies. This provided a stimulus for the growth of volleyball in foreign lands.

In 1920, three hits per side and back row attack rules were instituted.

In 1922, the first YMCA national championships were held in Brooklyn, NY. 27 teams from 11 states were represented.

In 1928, it became clear that tournaments and rules were needed, the United States Volleyball Association (USVBA, now USA Volleyball) was formed. The first U.S. Open was staged, as the field was open to non-YMCA squads.

1930's Recreational sports programs became an important part of American life

In 1930, the first two-man beach game was played.

In 1934, the approval and recognition of national volleyball referees.

In 1937, at the AAU convention in Boston, action was taken to recognize the U.S. Volleyball Association as the official national governing body in the U.S.

Late 1940s Forearm pass introduced to the game (as a desperation play) Most balls played with overhand pass

1946 A study of recreation in the United States showed that volleyball ranked fifth among team sports being promoted and organized

In 1947, the Federation Internationale De Volley-Ball (FIVB) was founded in Paris.

In 1948, the first two-man beach tournament was held.

In 1949, the first World Championships were held in Prague, Czechoslovakia.

1949 USVBA added a collegiate division, for competitive college teams. For the first ten years collegiate competition was sparse. Teams formed only through the efforts of interested students and instructors. Many teams dissolved when the interested individuals left the college. Competitive teams were scattered, with no collegiate governing bodies providing leadership in the sport.

1951 - Volleyball was played by over 50 million people each year in over 60 countries

1955 - Pan American Games included volleyball

1957 - The International Olympic Committee (IOC) designated volleyball as an Olympic team sport, to be included in the 1964 Olympic Games.

1959 - International University Sports Federation (FISU) held the first University Games in Turin, Italy. Volleyball was one of the eight competitions held.

1960 Seven midwestern institutions formed the Midwest Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (MIVA)

1964Southern California Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (SCVIA) was formed in California

1960's new techniques added to the game included - the soft spike (dink), forearm pass (bump), blocking across the net, and defensive diving and rolling.

In 1964, Volleyball was introduced to the Olympic Games in Tokyo.

The Japanese volleyball used in the 1964 Olympics, consisted of a rubber carcass with leather panelling. A similarly constructed ball is used in most modern competition.

In 1965, the California Beach Volleyball Association (CBVA) was formed.

1968 National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) made volleyball their fifteenth competitive sport.

1969 The Executive Committee of the NCAA proposed addition of volleyball to its program.

In 1974, the World Championships in Mexico were telecast in Japan.

In 1975, the US National Women's team began a year-round training regime in Pasadena, Texas (moved to Colorado Springs in 1979, Coto de Caza and Fountain Valley, CA in 1980, and San Diego, CA in 1985).

In 1977, the US National Men's team began a year-round training regime in Dayton, Ohio (moved to San Diego, CA in 1981).

In 1983, the Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP) was formed.

In 1984, the US won their first medals at the Olympics in Los Angeles. The Men won the Gold, and the Women the Silver.

In 1986, the Women's Professional Volleyball Association (WPVA) was formed.

In 1987, the FIVB added a Beach Volleyball World Championship Series.

In 1988, the US Men repeated the Gold in the Olympics in Korea.

In 1989, the FIVB Sports Aid Program was created.

In 1990, the World League was created.

In 1992, the Four Person Pro Beach League was started in the United States.

In 1994, Volleyball World Wide, created.

In 1995, the sport of Volleyball was 100 years old!

In 1996, 2-person beach volleyball was added to the Olympics

There is a good book, "Volleyball Centennial: The First 100 Years", available on the history of the sport.

________________________________________

Copyright (c)Volleyball World Wide

Volleyball World Wide on the Computer Internet/WWW

http://www.Volleyball.ORG/

English-Albanian dictionary > History of volleyball
8 historic

•• historic, historical, historically

•• * Существование в английском языке двух слов – historic и historical – имеет два противоречащих друг другу следствия. Во-первых, в устной речи нередко смешение этих слов. Мне приходилось слышать, как о событии, еще не «ушедшем в историю» и даже еще не состоявшемся, говорили It is/ will be a/ an historical event. Конечно, правильнее в данном случае historic или history-making. Но и historical event тоже правильно в определенных контекстах:
•• What historical event do you wish you could stop? If you could go back in time and prevent anything in history from having happened ( as opposed to just passively watching it happen), what particular incident in history would you most want to stop from happening and is there any reason why? (c сайта http://uplink.space.com).
•• С другой стороны, иногда различие между этими словами существенно и должно учитываться переводчиком. Слово historical, как мне кажется, шире русского исторический, так как охватывает все, что имеет отношение к прошлому, а русское слово – только то, что говорящий интуитивно относит к «истории», т.е. к историческому процессу, «историческим судьбам» и т.п. Русское слово часто, хотя и не всегда, «возвышенней». Среди исключений – например, словосочетание историческая справка. И все же более «бытовой» характер английского слова позволяет употреблять его в тех ситуациях, где говорящий по-русски скорее всего скажет иначе.
•• В выступлении Кондолисы Райс перед комиссией по расследованию событий 11 сентября это слово встретилось пять раз, плюс historically в значении, о котором будет сказано ниже:
•• Historically, democratic societies have been slow to react to gathering threats, tending instead to wait to confront threats until they are too dangerous to ignore or until it is too late. – Исторический опыт (или просто опыт) свидетельствует о том, что...
•• Далее Райс трижды употребляет это слово в отношении документа, представленного президенту Бушу 6 августа 2001 года (о возможных действиях «Аль-Каиды»):
•• I was in a press conference to try and describe the Aug. 6 memo, which I’ve talked about here in the – my opening remarks and which I talked about with you in the private session. And I said at one point that this was a historical memo, that it was not based on new threat information. <...>
•• It was not a particular threat report. And there was historical information in there about – about various aspects of al Qaeda’s operations. <...> It did not warn of attacks inside the United States. It was historical information based on old reporting. There was no new threat information. And it did not, in fact, warn of any coming attacks inside the United States.
•• Один из членов комиссии (демократ) ухватился за эту формулировку:
•• Well, did you not – you have indicated here that this was some historical document. And I am asking you whether it is not the case that you learned in the P.D.B. memo of Aug. 6 that the F.B.I. was saying that it had information suggesting that preparations, not historically, but ongoing, along with these numerous full field investigations against al Qaeda cells, that preparations were being made consistent with hijackings within the United States.
•• Конечно, по-русски в данном случае просто невозможно сказать исторический документ, хотя можно – историческая справка, но предпочтительно все же, по-моему, справочный материал, справочная информация. В вопросе – not historically, but ongoing – возможен вариант не в историческом разрезе, а в текущем плане.
•• Далее у Райс интересная оговорка, тут же исправленная:
•• This was a historic memo – historical memo prepared by the agency because the president was asking questions about what we knew about the inside.
•• Исправление оговорки – признак существенного различия двух слов. (Кстати, в качестве антонима historical появляется слово, неоднократно всплывавшее в ходе слушаний и не поддающееся однословному переводу, – actionable:
•• The president was told this is historical information. I am told he was told this is historical information. And there was nothing actionable in this. The president knew that the F.B.I. was pursuing this issue. The president knew that the director of central intelligence was pursuing this issue. And there was no new threat information in this document to pursue.
•• Actionable information – пока не могу предложить ничего кроме информация, требующая/ дающая основания для конкретных действий. Длинно.)
•• Конечно, «оппозиция Его Величества» не замедлила поиграть со словом historical. Из редакционной статьи New York Times:
•• The administration argument that it had only gotten intelligence about potential terrorist attacks abroad in the summer of 2001 was rather drastically undermined when Ms. Rice revealed, under questioning, that the briefing given Mr. Bush by the C.I.A. on Aug. 6, 2001, was titled “Bin Laden Determined to Attack Inside the United States.” Ms. Rice continues to insist that the information was “ historical” rather than a warning of something likely to occur.
•• Еще более хлестко (но абсолютно неизбежно, удержаться от игры слов невозможно):
•• What should have made Condi hysterical, she deemed “historical.” (Maureen Dowd)
•• Последний пример, кстати, заставляет все-таки выбрать в переводе вариант историческая справка, чтобы попробовать передать игру слов, но все равно сделать это непросто:
•• Информация, способная вызвать истерическую реакцию, для Конди – не более чем историческая справка.
•• А теперь о наречии historically. Словари – как толковые, так и переводные, – как правило, не дают отдельного определения или перевода наречий с - ly, считая, что все и так ясно – их смысл и перевод вытекают из соответствующего прилагательного. Но это далеко не всегда так. В статье из New York Times, попавшей в обзор зарубежной прессы на радио «Эхо Москвы», встретилось: Iran has historically denied that it is pursuing a nuclear weapons program. Ведущая так и сказала: Иран исторически отрицал (и т.д.). Здесь, конечно, нужно просто всегда или неизменно. В некоторых случаях хорошо подойдет русское наречие традиционно: historically black colleges – традиционно негритянские колледжи (здесь это прилагательное, по-моему, вполне приемлемо), historically underutilized businesses – компании, традиционно недопредставленные среди подрядчиков, historically disadvantaged – традиционно находящиеся в тяжелом положении. Иногда подходящее русское соответствие – по многолетним наблюдениям ( This is not uncommon historically for the month of April). Наконец, контекст может подсказать и такой вариант, как беспрецедентно: Historically high growth in employment.
•• Интересный пример из статьи У. Пфаффа в International Herald Tribune:
•• Historically, in joint ventures with U.S. government and industry, U.S. security and proprietary restraints nearly always have forced the European partners into subordinate roles.
•• Здесь самый лучший перевод – просто раньше, прежде.
•• Слово historically, на мой взгляд, не является многозначным, у него одно довольно широкое и несколько расплывчатое значение, но в переводе оно начинает играть своими различными гранями. Разумеется, в приведенном выше примере возможен и перевод Исторически сложилось так, что...
•• В отличие от historically наречие indefinitely дается в большинстве словарей (например, в БАРСе и ABBYY Lingvo) как отдельная словарная статья. Но упущено довольно частое употребление indefinitely в значении, близком к until further notice. Пример из New York Times:
•• Thomas Krens, the foundation director, acknowledged as unrealistic the prospect of financing the $950 million project at a time when the museum is cutting budget, staff and programs. Beginning Sunday, for example, the Guggenheim Las Vegas is to go dark indefinitely.
•• Перевод напрашивается: на неопределенный срок. Кстати, to go dark – есть ли это в словарях? Обычно так говорят, когда, скажем, музей, театр или web-сайт прерывают работу на некоторое время – с возможностью ее возобновления.
•• Еще один пример интересного с точки зрения перевода и лексикографии употребления наречия (для контекста даю несколько предшествующих фраз):
•• After months of inaction, I finally turned to former President Bush, who immediately interceded with Crown Prince Abdallah on the FBI’s behalf. <...> The Saudis immediately acceded. <...> Mr. Bush typically disclaimed any credit for his critical intervention, but he earned the gratitude of many FBI agents and the Khobar families. (American Justice for Khobar Heroes. By Louis J. Freeh. Wall Street Journal)
•• Typically здесь нельзя переводить как типично или даже что для него типично. В каких-то случаях может подойти разговорное что характерно. Но лучше, конечно, в свойственной ему манере или как обычно. Думаю, в двуязычном словаре для такого примера должно найтись место. Во-первых, он показывает идиоматичное употребление английского наречия. Во-вторых, подсказывает перевод.
•• Наречия типа confusingly обычно не включаются в словари в качестве отдельной статьи. Считается, что перевод таких слов, как amazingly или startlingly, не должен вызывать трудностей, но это не всегда так. На конференции по товарным знакам встретилось выражение confusingly similar. В юридическом словаре есть confusion in trademarks – смешение товарных знаков. Соответственно confusingly similar – схожий/ аналогичный до степени смешения (принятый практиками перевод). Пожалуй, это стоит включить не только в специальный словарь.

English-Russian nonsystematic dictionary > historic
9 historical

•• historic, historical, historically

•• * Существование в английском языке двух слов – historic и historical – имеет два противоречащих друг другу следствия. Во-первых, в устной речи нередко смешение этих слов. Мне приходилось слышать, как о событии, еще не «ушедшем в историю» и даже еще не состоявшемся, говорили It is/ will be a/ an historical event. Конечно, правильнее в данном случае historic или history-making. Но и historical event тоже правильно в определенных контекстах:
•• What historical event do you wish you could stop? If you could go back in time and prevent anything in history from having happened ( as opposed to just passively watching it happen), what particular incident in history would you most want to stop from happening and is there any reason why? (c сайта http://uplink.space.com).
•• С другой стороны, иногда различие между этими словами существенно и должно учитываться переводчиком. Слово historical, как мне кажется, шире русского исторический, так как охватывает все, что имеет отношение к прошлому, а русское слово – только то, что говорящий интуитивно относит к «истории», т.е. к историческому процессу, «историческим судьбам» и т.п. Русское слово часто, хотя и не всегда, «возвышенней». Среди исключений – например, словосочетание историческая справка. И все же более «бытовой» характер английского слова позволяет употреблять его в тех ситуациях, где говорящий по-русски скорее всего скажет иначе.
•• В выступлении Кондолисы Райс перед комиссией по расследованию событий 11 сентября это слово встретилось пять раз, плюс historically в значении, о котором будет сказано ниже:
•• Historically, democratic societies have been slow to react to gathering threats, tending instead to wait to confront threats until they are too dangerous to ignore or until it is too late. – Исторический опыт (или просто опыт) свидетельствует о том, что...
•• Далее Райс трижды употребляет это слово в отношении документа, представленного президенту Бушу 6 августа 2001 года (о возможных действиях «Аль-Каиды»):
•• I was in a press conference to try and describe the Aug. 6 memo, which I’ve talked about here in the – my opening remarks and which I talked about with you in the private session. And I said at one point that this was a historical memo, that it was not based on new threat information. <...>
•• It was not a particular threat report. And there was historical information in there about – about various aspects of al Qaeda’s operations. <...> It did not warn of attacks inside the United States. It was historical information based on old reporting. There was no new threat information. And it did not, in fact, warn of any coming attacks inside the United States.
•• Один из членов комиссии (демократ) ухватился за эту формулировку:
•• Well, did you not – you have indicated here that this was some historical document. And I am asking you whether it is not the case that you learned in the P.D.B. memo of Aug. 6 that the F.B.I. was saying that it had information suggesting that preparations, not historically, but ongoing, along with these numerous full field investigations against al Qaeda cells, that preparations were being made consistent with hijackings within the United States.
•• Конечно, по-русски в данном случае просто невозможно сказать исторический документ, хотя можно – историческая справка, но предпочтительно все же, по-моему, справочный материал, справочная информация. В вопросе – not historically, but ongoing – возможен вариант не в историческом разрезе, а в текущем плане.
•• Далее у Райс интересная оговорка, тут же исправленная:
•• This was a historic memo – historical memo prepared by the agency because the president was asking questions about what we knew about the inside.
•• Исправление оговорки – признак существенного различия двух слов. (Кстати, в качестве антонима historical появляется слово, неоднократно всплывавшее в ходе слушаний и не поддающееся однословному переводу, – actionable:
•• The president was told this is historical information. I am told he was told this is historical information. And there was nothing actionable in this. The president knew that the F.B.I. was pursuing this issue. The president knew that the director of central intelligence was pursuing this issue. And there was no new threat information in this document to pursue.
•• Actionable information – пока не могу предложить ничего кроме информация, требующая/ дающая основания для конкретных действий. Длинно.)
•• Конечно, «оппозиция Его Величества» не замедлила поиграть со словом historical. Из редакционной статьи New York Times:
•• The administration argument that it had only gotten intelligence about potential terrorist attacks abroad in the summer of 2001 was rather drastically undermined when Ms. Rice revealed, under questioning, that the briefing given Mr. Bush by the C.I.A. on Aug. 6, 2001, was titled “Bin Laden Determined to Attack Inside the United States.” Ms. Rice continues to insist that the information was “ historical” rather than a warning of something likely to occur.
•• Еще более хлестко (но абсолютно неизбежно, удержаться от игры слов невозможно):
•• What should have made Condi hysterical, she deemed “historical.” (Maureen Dowd)
•• Последний пример, кстати, заставляет все-таки выбрать в переводе вариант историческая справка, чтобы попробовать передать игру слов, но все равно сделать это непросто:
•• Информация, способная вызвать истерическую реакцию, для Конди – не более чем историческая справка.
•• А теперь о наречии historically. Словари – как толковые, так и переводные, – как правило, не дают отдельного определения или перевода наречий с - ly, считая, что все и так ясно – их смысл и перевод вытекают из соответствующего прилагательного. Но это далеко не всегда так. В статье из New York Times, попавшей в обзор зарубежной прессы на радио «Эхо Москвы», встретилось: Iran has historically denied that it is pursuing a nuclear weapons program. Ведущая так и сказала: Иран исторически отрицал (и т.д.). Здесь, конечно, нужно просто всегда или неизменно. В некоторых случаях хорошо подойдет русское наречие традиционно: historically black colleges – традиционно негритянские колледжи (здесь это прилагательное, по-моему, вполне приемлемо), historically underutilized businesses – компании, традиционно недопредставленные среди подрядчиков, historically disadvantaged – традиционно находящиеся в тяжелом положении. Иногда подходящее русское соответствие – по многолетним наблюдениям ( This is not uncommon historically for the month of April). Наконец, контекст может подсказать и такой вариант, как беспрецедентно: Historically high growth in employment.
•• Интересный пример из статьи У. Пфаффа в International Herald Tribune:
•• Historically, in joint ventures with U.S. government and industry, U.S. security and proprietary restraints nearly always have forced the European partners into subordinate roles.
•• Здесь самый лучший перевод – просто раньше, прежде.
•• Слово historically, на мой взгляд, не является многозначным, у него одно довольно широкое и несколько расплывчатое значение, но в переводе оно начинает играть своими различными гранями. Разумеется, в приведенном выше примере возможен и перевод Исторически сложилось так, что...
•• В отличие от historically наречие indefinitely дается в большинстве словарей (например, в БАРСе и ABBYY Lingvo) как отдельная словарная статья. Но упущено довольно частое употребление indefinitely в значении, близком к until further notice. Пример из New York Times:
•• Thomas Krens, the foundation director, acknowledged as unrealistic the prospect of financing the $950 million project at a time when the museum is cutting budget, staff and programs. Beginning Sunday, for example, the Guggenheim Las Vegas is to go dark indefinitely.
•• Перевод напрашивается: на неопределенный срок. Кстати, to go dark – есть ли это в словарях? Обычно так говорят, когда, скажем, музей, театр или web-сайт прерывают работу на некоторое время – с возможностью ее возобновления.
•• Еще один пример интересного с точки зрения перевода и лексикографии употребления наречия (для контекста даю несколько предшествующих фраз):
•• After months of inaction, I finally turned to former President Bush, who immediately interceded with Crown Prince Abdallah on the FBI’s behalf. <...> The Saudis immediately acceded. <...> Mr. Bush typically disclaimed any credit for his critical intervention, but he earned the gratitude of many FBI agents and the Khobar families. (American Justice for Khobar Heroes. By Louis J. Freeh. Wall Street Journal)
•• Typically здесь нельзя переводить как типично или даже что для него типично. В каких-то случаях может подойти разговорное что характерно. Но лучше, конечно, в свойственной ему манере или как обычно. Думаю, в двуязычном словаре для такого примера должно найтись место. Во-первых, он показывает идиоматичное употребление английского наречия. Во-вторых, подсказывает перевод.
•• Наречия типа confusingly обычно не включаются в словари в качестве отдельной статьи. Считается, что перевод таких слов, как amazingly или startlingly, не должен вызывать трудностей, но это не всегда так. На конференции по товарным знакам встретилось выражение confusingly similar. В юридическом словаре есть confusion in trademarks – смешение товарных знаков. Соответственно confusingly similar – схожий/ аналогичный до степени смешения (принятый практиками перевод). Пожалуй, это стоит включить не только в специальный словарь.

English-Russian nonsystematic dictionary > historical
10 historically

•• historic, historical, historically

•• * Существование в английском языке двух слов – historic и historical – имеет два противоречащих друг другу следствия. Во-первых, в устной речи нередко смешение этих слов. Мне приходилось слышать, как о событии, еще не «ушедшем в историю» и даже еще не состоявшемся, говорили It is/ will be a/ an historical event. Конечно, правильнее в данном случае historic или history-making. Но и historical event тоже правильно в определенных контекстах:
•• What historical event do you wish you could stop? If you could go back in time and prevent anything in history from having happened ( as opposed to just passively watching it happen), what particular incident in history would you most want to stop from happening and is there any reason why? (c сайта http://uplink.space.com).
•• С другой стороны, иногда различие между этими словами существенно и должно учитываться переводчиком. Слово historical, как мне кажется, шире русского исторический, так как охватывает все, что имеет отношение к прошлому, а русское слово – только то, что говорящий интуитивно относит к «истории», т.е. к историческому процессу, «историческим судьбам» и т.п. Русское слово часто, хотя и не всегда, «возвышенней». Среди исключений – например, словосочетание историческая справка. И все же более «бытовой» характер английского слова позволяет употреблять его в тех ситуациях, где говорящий по-русски скорее всего скажет иначе.
•• В выступлении Кондолисы Райс перед комиссией по расследованию событий 11 сентября это слово встретилось пять раз, плюс historically в значении, о котором будет сказано ниже:
•• Historically, democratic societies have been slow to react to gathering threats, tending instead to wait to confront threats until they are too dangerous to ignore or until it is too late. – Исторический опыт (или просто опыт) свидетельствует о том, что...
•• Далее Райс трижды употребляет это слово в отношении документа, представленного президенту Бушу 6 августа 2001 года (о возможных действиях «Аль-Каиды»):
•• I was in a press conference to try and describe the Aug. 6 memo, which I’ve talked about here in the – my opening remarks and which I talked about with you in the private session. And I said at one point that this was a historical memo, that it was not based on new threat information. <...>
•• It was not a particular threat report. And there was historical information in there about – about various aspects of al Qaeda’s operations. <...> It did not warn of attacks inside the United States. It was historical information based on old reporting. There was no new threat information. And it did not, in fact, warn of any coming attacks inside the United States.
•• Один из членов комиссии (демократ) ухватился за эту формулировку:
•• Well, did you not – you have indicated here that this was some historical document. And I am asking you whether it is not the case that you learned in the P.D.B. memo of Aug. 6 that the F.B.I. was saying that it had information suggesting that preparations, not historically, but ongoing, along with these numerous full field investigations against al Qaeda cells, that preparations were being made consistent with hijackings within the United States.
•• Конечно, по-русски в данном случае просто невозможно сказать исторический документ, хотя можно – историческая справка, но предпочтительно все же, по-моему, справочный материал, справочная информация. В вопросе – not historically, but ongoing – возможен вариант не в историческом разрезе, а в текущем плане.
•• Далее у Райс интересная оговорка, тут же исправленная:
•• This was a historic memo – historical memo prepared by the agency because the president was asking questions about what we knew about the inside.
•• Исправление оговорки – признак существенного различия двух слов. (Кстати, в качестве антонима historical появляется слово, неоднократно всплывавшее в ходе слушаний и не поддающееся однословному переводу, – actionable:
•• The president was told this is historical information. I am told he was told this is historical information. And there was nothing actionable in this. The president knew that the F.B.I. was pursuing this issue. The president knew that the director of central intelligence was pursuing this issue. And there was no new threat information in this document to pursue.
•• Actionable information – пока не могу предложить ничего кроме информация, требующая/ дающая основания для конкретных действий. Длинно.)
•• Конечно, «оппозиция Его Величества» не замедлила поиграть со словом historical. Из редакционной статьи New York Times:
•• The administration argument that it had only gotten intelligence about potential terrorist attacks abroad in the summer of 2001 was rather drastically undermined when Ms. Rice revealed, under questioning, that the briefing given Mr. Bush by the C.I.A. on Aug. 6, 2001, was titled “Bin Laden Determined to Attack Inside the United States.” Ms. Rice continues to insist that the information was “ historical” rather than a warning of something likely to occur.
•• Еще более хлестко (но абсолютно неизбежно, удержаться от игры слов невозможно):
•• What should have made Condi hysterical, she deemed “historical.” (Maureen Dowd)
•• Последний пример, кстати, заставляет все-таки выбрать в переводе вариант историческая справка, чтобы попробовать передать игру слов, но все равно сделать это непросто:
•• Информация, способная вызвать истерическую реакцию, для Конди – не более чем историческая справка.
•• А теперь о наречии historically. Словари – как толковые, так и переводные, – как правило, не дают отдельного определения или перевода наречий с - ly, считая, что все и так ясно – их смысл и перевод вытекают из соответствующего прилагательного. Но это далеко не всегда так. В статье из New York Times, попавшей в обзор зарубежной прессы на радио «Эхо Москвы», встретилось: Iran has historically denied that it is pursuing a nuclear weapons program. Ведущая так и сказала: Иран исторически отрицал (и т.д.). Здесь, конечно, нужно просто всегда или неизменно. В некоторых случаях хорошо подойдет русское наречие традиционно: historically black colleges – традиционно негритянские колледжи (здесь это прилагательное, по-моему, вполне приемлемо), historically underutilized businesses – компании, традиционно недопредставленные среди подрядчиков, historically disadvantaged – традиционно находящиеся в тяжелом положении. Иногда подходящее русское соответствие – по многолетним наблюдениям ( This is not uncommon historically for the month of April). Наконец, контекст может подсказать и такой вариант, как беспрецедентно: Historically high growth in employment.
•• Интересный пример из статьи У. Пфаффа в International Herald Tribune:
•• Historically, in joint ventures with U.S. government and industry, U.S. security and proprietary restraints nearly always have forced the European partners into subordinate roles.
•• Здесь самый лучший перевод – просто раньше, прежде.
•• Слово historically, на мой взгляд, не является многозначным, у него одно довольно широкое и несколько расплывчатое значение, но в переводе оно начинает играть своими различными гранями. Разумеется, в приведенном выше примере возможен и перевод Исторически сложилось так, что...
•• В отличие от historically наречие indefinitely дается в большинстве словарей (например, в БАРСе и ABBYY Lingvo) как отдельная словарная статья. Но упущено довольно частое употребление indefinitely в значении, близком к until further notice. Пример из New York Times:
•• Thomas Krens, the foundation director, acknowledged as unrealistic the prospect of financing the $950 million project at a time when the museum is cutting budget, staff and programs. Beginning Sunday, for example, the Guggenheim Las Vegas is to go dark indefinitely.
•• Перевод напрашивается: на неопределенный срок. Кстати, to go dark – есть ли это в словарях? Обычно так говорят, когда, скажем, музей, театр или web-сайт прерывают работу на некоторое время – с возможностью ее возобновления.
•• Еще один пример интересного с точки зрения перевода и лексикографии употребления наречия (для контекста даю несколько предшествующих фраз):
•• After months of inaction, I finally turned to former President Bush, who immediately interceded with Crown Prince Abdallah on the FBI’s behalf. <...> The Saudis immediately acceded. <...> Mr. Bush typically disclaimed any credit for his critical intervention, but he earned the gratitude of many FBI agents and the Khobar families. (American Justice for Khobar Heroes. By Louis J. Freeh. Wall Street Journal)
•• Typically здесь нельзя переводить как типично или даже что для него типично. В каких-то случаях может подойти разговорное что характерно. Но лучше, конечно, в свойственной ему манере или как обычно. Думаю, в двуязычном словаре для такого примера должно найтись место. Во-первых, он показывает идиоматичное употребление английского наречия. Во-вторых, подсказывает перевод.
•• Наречия типа confusingly обычно не включаются в словари в качестве отдельной статьи. Считается, что перевод таких слов, как amazingly или startlingly, не должен вызывать трудностей, но это не всегда так. На конференции по товарным знакам встретилось выражение confusingly similar. В юридическом словаре есть confusion in trademarks – смешение товарных знаков. Соответственно confusingly similar – схожий/ аналогичный до степени смешения (принятый практиками перевод). Пожалуй, это стоит включить не только в специальный словарь.

English-Russian nonsystematic dictionary > historically

См. также в других словарях:

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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director of International Programs

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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director of International Programs

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